Everything curl

https://everything.curl.dev/
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### Build and install curl

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/build/boringssl.html

Run make in the curl source tree, then install with make install.

```bash
make
```

```bash
make install
```

--------------------------------

### Config file syntax with comments and options

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/cmdline/configfile.html

Each line contains one command-line option. Lines starting with # are comments. This example uses the long options with leading dashes.

```bash
# curl config file

# Follow redirects
--location

# Do a HEAD request
--head
```

--------------------------------

### Update URL parts: set full URL and change host

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/urlapi/set-part.html

Demonstrates updating a URL by first setting a full URL string and then changing the host part. The example starts with a URL containing user info, port, path, query, and fragment, then replaces the host with example.net.

```c
const char url[] =
  "http://joe:7Hbz@example.com:8080/images?id=5445#footer";
```

```c
CURLU *h = curl_url();
rc = curl_url_set(h, CURLUPART_URL, url, 0);
```

```c
rc = curl_url_set(h, CURLUPART_HOST, "example.net", 0);
```

```text
http://joe:7Hbz@example.net:8080/images?id=5445#footer
```

--------------------------------

### Perform a basic HTTP GET download with libcurl

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl-http/download.html

Shows the default GET request using curl_easy_init, CURLOPT_URL, and curl_easy_perform. Options are sticky, so use CURLOPT_HTTPGET to switch back to GET after using another method.

```c
easy = curl_easy_init();
curl_easy_setopt(easy, CURLOPT_URL, "http://example.com/");
curl_easy_perform(easy);
```

--------------------------------

### Install a local curl package with pacman -U

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/windows/win-msys2.html

Installs a locally built package file using pacman -U. The example shows installing the winssl variant of the curl package.

```bash
pacman -U mingw-w64-x86_64-curl-winssl-7.80.0-1-any.pkg.tar.zst
```

--------------------------------

### Query libcurl build flags with pkg-config

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/windows/win-msys2.html

Shows how to use pkg-config in the mingw64 shell to get the compiler and linker flags needed to build against libcurl. The output shows the expected paths for the default installation.

```bash
pkg-config --cflags libcurl
# -IC:/msys64/mingw64/include

pkg-config --libs libcurl
# -LC:/msys64/mingw64/lib -lcurl
```

--------------------------------

### Install libcurl development package on SUSE/openSUSE with zypper

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the libcurl development package using zypper.

```bash
zypper install libcurl-devel
```

--------------------------------

### C program to login and fetch protected resource with cookies

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/examples/login.html

This example shows how to submit a login form using libcurl. It sets the POST fields, follows redirects, and enables cookie parsing by passing an empty cookie file. After the login, it switches to a GET request to fetch a protected URL using the received cookies.

```c
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <curl/curl.h>

int main(void)
{
  CURL *curl;
  CURLcode res;

  static const char *postthis = "user=daniel&password=monkey123";

  curl = curl_easy_init();
  if(curl) {
    curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_URL,
                     "https://example.com/login.cgi");
    curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_POSTFIELDS, postthis);
    curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_FOLLOWLOCATION, 1L);
    curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_COOKIEFILE, ""); /* no file */
    res = curl_easy_perform(curl);
    /* Check for errors */
    if(res != CURLE_OK)
      fprintf(stderr, "curl_easy_perform() failed: %s\n",
              curl_easy_strerror(res));
    else {
      /*
       * After the login POST, we have received the new cookies.
       * Switch over to a GET and ask for the login-protected URL.
       */
      curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_URL, "https://example.com/file");
      curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_HTTPGET, 1L); /* no more POST */
      res = curl_easy_perform(curl);
      /* Check for errors */
      if(res != CURLE_OK)
        fprintf(stderr, "second curl_easy_perform() failed: %s\n",
                curl_easy_strerror(res));
    }
    /* always cleanup */
    curl_easy_cleanup(curl);
  }
  return 0;
}
```

--------------------------------

### Install libcurl development package on Void Linux with xbps-install

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the libcurl development package using xbps-install on Void Linux.

```bash
xbps-install libcurl-devel
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl on SUSE/openSUSE with zypper

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Use zypper to install the curl command-line utility on SUSE and openSUSE.

```bash
zypper install curl
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl with nix-env

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the curl command-line tool using the Nix package manager.

```bash
nix-env -i curl
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl on Void Linux with xbps-install

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Use xbps-install to install the curl command-line utility on Void Linux.

```bash
xbps-install curl
```

--------------------------------

### Install libcurl development package on Fedora with dnf

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the libcurl development package using dnf.

```bash
dnf install libcurl-devel
```

--------------------------------

### Install libcurl development package on Ubuntu/Debian with apt

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the libcurl development package with the OpenSSL TLS backend using apt.

```bash
apt install libcurl4-openssl-dev
```

--------------------------------

### Install libcurl with vcpkg

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/windows/win-vcpkg.html

Use this command to install libcurl for Windows x64 via vcpkg. The package name is 'curl' but it provides libcurl, not the curl executable.

```bash
vcpkg.exe install curl:x64-windows
```

--------------------------------

### Repeat content example: %repeat[100 x hello]%

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/internals/tests/file-format.html

Example that inserts the word 'hello' 100 times in the test file.

```plaintext
%repeat[100 x hello]%
```

--------------------------------

### Install libcurl development package on RedHat/CentOS with yum

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the libcurl development package (headers and docs) using yum.

```bash
yum install libcurl-devel
```

--------------------------------

### Configure with GnuTLS install prefix

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/build/autotools.html

Use --with-gnutls with an install prefix to make configure search for GnuTLS in a custom location.

```shell
./configure --with-gnutls=/home/user/custom-gnutls
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl on Gentoo with emerge

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the net-misc/curl package on Gentoo, which includes the tool, libcurl, headers, and pkg-config files.

```bash
emerge net-misc/curl
```

--------------------------------

### Install libcurl development package on SUSE SLE Micro/openSUSE MicroOS with transactional-update

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the libcurl development package using transactional-update on immutable SUSE/openSUSE systems.

```bash
transactional-update pkg install libcurl-devel
```

--------------------------------

### Install libcurl development package on immutable Fedora with rpm-ostree

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install the libcurl development package using rpm-ostree on immutable Fedora distributions.

```bash
rpm-ostree install libcurl-devel
```

--------------------------------

### Connect to a specific load-balanced server with --connect-to

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/usingcurl/connections/name.html

Use --connect-to to replace the hostname and port used for the connection while keeping the original URL. This example connects to load1.example.com:80 when the URL uses www.example.com:80.

```bash
curl --connect-to www.example.com:80:load1.example.com:80 \
  http://www.example.com
```

--------------------------------

### Expand --variable on command line

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/cmdline/variables/expand-variable.html

Use --expand-variable to assign variables to the contents of other variables. The example shows three assignments: var1 gets the value of var2, fullname gets a string with embedded variables, and source gets the contents of a file named by the filename variable.

```bash
curl \
    --expand-variable var1={{var2}} \
    --expand-variable fullname="Mrs {{first}} {{last}}" \
    --expand-variable source@{{filename}}
```

--------------------------------

### Redirect example.com to localhost with --resolve

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/usingcurl/connections/name.html

Use --resolve to map example.com:80 to 127.0.0.1, overriding DNS resolution for that hostname and port. This is useful for testing or redirecting traffic to a local server.

```bash
curl --resolve example.com:80:127.0.0.1 http://example.com/
```

--------------------------------

### curl -G --data-urlencode example

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/http/post/convert-to-get.html

Use -G with --data-urlencode to append encoded data as a query parameter to the URL and send a GET request. The example encodes 'name=daniel stenberg' and sends it to https://example.com/.

```bash
curl -G --data-urlencode "name=daniel stenberg" https://example.com/
```

--------------------------------

### Start a new cookie session with curl -j

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/http/cookies/newsession.html

Use the -j, --junk-session-cookies option to tell curl to start a new cookie session, discarding all old session cookies. The example loads cookies from cookies.txt and accesses example.com.

```bash
curl -j -b cookies.txt http://example.com/
```

--------------------------------

### CURLOPT_URL

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/bookindex.html

Sets the URL for the transfer. This option is used in many contexts, including easy handle setup, string options, and various examples.

```APIDOC
## CURLOPT_URL

### Description
Sets the URL for the transfer. This option is used in many contexts, including easy handle setup, string options, and various examples.

### Parameters
- **CURLOPT_URL** (string) - Required - The URL to connect to.

### Usage
Refer to the following sections for detailed usage:
- [--libcurl](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl/--libcurl.html#sect---libcurl)
- [Strings are C strings, not C++ string objects](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl/cplusplus.html#strings-are-c-strings-not-c---string-objects)
- [Easy handle](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/easyhandle.html#easy-handle)
- [Set string options](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/options/strings.html#set-string-options)
- [All options](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/options/all.html#all-options)
- [Example](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/conn/keepalive.html#example)
- [Stop slow transfers](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/control/stopslow.html#stop-slow-transfers)
- [Rate limit](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/control/ratelimit.html#rate-limit)
- [Progress meter](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/control/meter.html#progress-meter)
- [Request method](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl-http/requests.html#request-method)
- [Bearer](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl-http/auth.html#bearer)
- [Download](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl-http/download.html#download)
- [HTTP PUT](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl-http/upload.html#http-put)
- [CURLOPT_CURLU](https://everything.curl.dev/urlapi/setopt.html#curlopt-_curlu)
- [Get a simple HTTP page](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/get.html#get-a-simple-http-page)
- [Get a response into memory](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/getinmem.html#get-a-response-into-memory)
- [Submit a login form over HTTP](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/login.html#submit-a-login-form-over-http)
- [Get an FTP directory listing](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/ftplist.html#get-an-ftp-directory-listing)
- [Non-blocking HTTP form-post](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/http-ul-nonblock.html#non-blocking-http-form-post)
- [WebSocket with CONNECT_ONLY](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/websocket.html#websocket-with-connect_only)
- [WebSocket using callback](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/ws-callback.html#websocket-using-callback)
```

--------------------------------

### Subscribe to MQTT topic with curl

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/usingcurl/mqtt.html

Use a plain GET request to subscribe to a topic and print all published messages. The example subscribes to the 'home/bedroom/temp' topic on example.com.

```shell
curl mqtt://example.com/home/bedroom/temp
```

--------------------------------

### Example .netrc for example.com

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/usingcurl/netrc.html

A multi-line .netrc file for the host example.com with user 'daniel' and password 'qwerty'. Each field is on its own line.

```netrc
machine example.com
login daniel
password qwerty
```

--------------------------------

### Example URL with user info and port

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/urlapi/get-part.html

A sample URL used to illustrate how curl parses and stores each component. The URL includes scheme, user, password, host, port, path, query, and fragment.

```text
http://joe:7Hbz@example.com:8080/images?id=5445#footer
```

--------------------------------

### Column alignment for multi-line if condition

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/source/style.html

Align continuation lines of an expression to the appropriate column, with operators not starting continuation lines. This example shows an if condition spanning multiple lines.

```c
if(Curl_pipeline_wanted(handle->multi, CURLPIPE_HTTP1) &&
   (handle->set.httpversion != CURL_HTTP_VERSION_1_0) &&
   (handle->set.httpreq == HTTPREQ_GET ||
    handle->set.httpreq == HTTPREQ_HEAD))
  /* did not ask for HTTP/1.0 and a GET or HEAD */
  return TRUE;
```

--------------------------------

### Fetch a URL with libcurl and output to stdout

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/examples/get.html

This is the simplest libcurl program: it initializes a curl handle, sets the URL to http://example.com/, performs the request, and checks for errors. The response is sent to stdout by default, which is usually not desired; most applications install a write callback instead.

```c
#include <stdio.h>
#include <curl/curl.h>

int main(void)
{
  CURL *curl;
  CURLcode res;

  curl = curl_easy_init();
  if(curl) {
    curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_URL, "http://example.com/");

    /* Perform the request, 'res' holds the return code */
    res = curl_easy_perform(curl);
    /* Check for errors */
    if(res != CURLE_OK)
      fprintf(stderr, "curl_easy_perform() failed: %s\n",
              curl_easy_strerror(res));

    /* always cleanup */
    curl_easy_cleanup(curl);
  }
  return 0;
}
```

--------------------------------

### Set LD_LIBRARY_PATH and run custom curl

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/build/separate.html

Use this in a shell to make the runtime linker look in a specific directory for shared libraries. It affects all executables loaded where the variable is set. This example assumes the new curl build is installed in $HOME/install.

```bash
export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$HOME/install/lib
$HOME/install/bin/curl https://example.com/
```

--------------------------------

### Connect to a local HTTP server with curl telnet

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/usingcurl/telnet.html

Use this to debug a local HTTP server by manually sending a request. The example connects to localhost:80 and sends 'GET /' followed by pressing return twice. The server likely responds with a 400 Bad Request error.

```bash
curl telnet://localhost:80
```

--------------------------------

### Avoid overwriting with --no-clobber

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/usingcurl/downloads/storing.html

Use --no-clobber to prevent overwriting existing files. If the file exists, curl appends a period and a number (starting at 1) to find an unused name, up to 100. The example saves as picture.png.2 when picture.png and picture.png.1 already exist.

```bash
curl --no-clobber https://example.com/image -o picture.png
```

--------------------------------

### Generated example.c from --libcurl

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl/--libcurl.html

The C program generated by the --libcurl option for the example command. It includes commented-out options that cannot be generated automatically, such as write/read/seek functions and error buffer settings.

```c
/******* Sample code generated by the curl command-line tool ********
 * All curl_easy_setopt() options are documented at:
 * https://curl.se/libcurl/c/curl_easy_setopt.html
 ********************************************************************/
#include <curl/curl.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
  CURLcode ret;
  CURL *hnd;

  hnd = curl_easy_init();
  curl_easy_setopt(hnd, CURLOPT_URL, "http://example.com");
  curl_easy_setopt(hnd, CURLOPT_NOPROGRESS, 1L);
  curl_easy_setopt(hnd, CURLOPT_USERAGENT, "curl/7.45.0");
  curl_easy_setopt(hnd, CURLOPT_MAXREDIRS, 50L);
  curl_easy_setopt(hnd, CURLOPT_SSH_KNOWNHOSTS,
                   "/home/daniel/.ssh/known_hosts");
  curl_easy_setopt(hnd, CURLOPT_TCP_KEEPALIVE, 1L);

  /* Here is a list of options the curl code used that cannot get
     generated as source easily. You may select to either not use
     them or implement them yourself.

  CURLOPT_WRITEDATA set to a objectpointer
  CURLOPT_WRITEFUNCTION set to a functionpointer
  CURLOPT_READDATA set to a objectpointer
  CURLOPT_READFUNCTION set to a functionpointer
  CURLOPT_SEEKDATA set to a objectpointer
  CURLOPT_SEEKFUNCTION set to a functionpointer
  CURLOPT_ERRORBUFFER set to a objectpointer
  CURLOPT_STDERR set to a objectpointer
  CURLOPT_HEADERFUNCTION set to a functionpointer
  CURLOPT_HEADERDATA set to a objectpointer

  */

  ret = curl_easy_perform(hnd);

  curl_easy_cleanup(hnd);
  hnd = NULL;

  return (int)ret;
}
/**** End of sample code ****/
```

--------------------------------

### Build and run test 144 from tests directory

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/internals/tests/build.html

Change into the tests directory, build the test suite, and run test 144 using runtests.pl.

```shell
cd tests
make
./runtests.pl 144
```

--------------------------------

### curl_easy_init

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/bookindex.html

Initializes a libcurl easy handle. This is the first step in using the easy interface and is used in many examples throughout the book.

```APIDOC
## curl_easy_init

### Description
Initializes a libcurl easy handle. This is the first step in using the easy interface and is used in many examples throughout the book.

### Usage
Refer to the following sections in the book:
- [`--libcurl`](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl/--libcurl.html#sect---libcurl)
- [Easy handle](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/easyhandle.html#easy-handle)
- [Example](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/conn/keepalive.html#example)
- [Stop slow transfers](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/control/stopslow.html#stop-slow-transfers)
- [Rate limit](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/control/ratelimit.html#rate-limit)
- [Progress meter](https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/control/meter.html#progress-meter)
- [Bearer](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl-http/auth.html#bearer)
- [Download](https://everything.curl.dev/libcurl-http/download.html#download)
- [CURLOPT_CURLU](https://everything.curl.dev/urlapi/setopt.html#curlopt-_curlu)
- [Get a simple HTTP page](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/get.html#get-a-simple-http-page)
- [Get a response into memory](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/getinmem.html#get-a-response-into-memory)
- [Submit a login form over HTTP](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/login.html#submit-a-login-form-over-http)
- [Get an FTP directory listing](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/ftplist.html#get-an-ftp-directory-listing)
- [Non-blocking HTTP form-post](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/http-ul-nonblock.html#non-blocking-http-form-post)
- [WebSocket with CONNECT_ONLY](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/websocket.html#websocket-with-connect_only)
- [WebSocket using callback](https://everything.curl.dev/examples/ws-callback.html#websocket-using-callback)
```

--------------------------------

### Set up lib directory with symlinks for curl's configure

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/build/boringssl.html

Commands to create a lib directory in the BoringSSL source tree root and symlink the built libraries (libssl.a and libcrypto.a) from the build directory. Run these from the source tree root, not the build subdirectory.

```bash
$ mkdir lib
$ cd lib
$ ln -s ../build/ssl/libssl.a
$ ln -s ../build/crypto/libcrypto.a
```

--------------------------------

### Build BoringSSL with cmake and make

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/build/boringssl.html

Commands to clone BoringSSL, create a build directory, configure with cmake, and compile. The example uses $HOME/src as the source directory.

```bash
$ cd $HOME/src
$ git clone https://boringssl.googlesource.com/boringssl
$ cd boringssl
$ mkdir build
$ cd build
$ cmake -DCMAKE_POSITION_INDEPENDENT_CODE=on ..
$ make
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl on Arch Linux with pacman

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Install curl using pacman on Arch Linux if it is not already installed.

```bash
pacman -S curl
```

--------------------------------

### Simple GET request with curl

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/http/modify/method.html

Performs a GET request to the given URL. The initial request line will be 'GET /file HTTP/1.1'.

```shell
curl http://example.com/file
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl on immutable Fedora with rpm-ostree

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Use rpm-ostree to install curl on immutable Fedora distributions like Silverblue. Remember to restart the system after install.

```bash
rpm-ostree install curl
```

--------------------------------

### Example curl --version output on Windows 10

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/cmdline/curlver.html

Example output from a Windows 10 machine (same date) showing curl 7.55.1 with WinSSL. The output lists protocols and features supported by this build.

```text
curl 7.55.1 (Windows) libcurl/7.55.1 WinSSL
Release-Date: [unreleased]
Protocols: dict file ftp ftps http https imap imaps pop3 pop3s smtp
smtps telnet tftp
Features: AsynchDNS IPv6 Largefile SSPI Kerberos SPNEGO NTLM SSL
```

--------------------------------

### Install build tools for MSYS2

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/windows/win-msys2.html

Installs the necessary build tools for compiling packages with pacman. Run these commands in the msys2 shell to set up a clean installation with git, autoconf, patch, and the GCC toolchain for x86_64.

```bash
# Sync the repositories
pacman -Syu

# Install git, autoconf, patch, etc
pacman -S git base-devel

# Install GCC for x86_64
pacman -S mingw-w64-x86_64-toolchain
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl on Fedora with dnf

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Use dnf to install the curl command-line tool on Fedora-based distributions.

```bash
dnf install curl
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl on RedHat/CentOS with yum

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Use yum to install the curl command-line tool on RedHat and CentOS derivatives.

```bash
yum install curl
```

--------------------------------

### Download a URL with curl

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/usingcurl/downloads/whatis.html

Use this command to download the resource at the given URL. curl defaults to downloading unless told otherwise. The URL http://example.com is used as an example.

```bash
curl http://example.com
```

--------------------------------

### Install curl on Ubuntu/Debian with apt

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/install/linux.html

Use apt to install the curl command-line tool on Debian and Ubuntu derivatives.

```bash
apt install curl
```

--------------------------------

### Include curl/curl.h and use URL API

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/urlapi/include.html

Include the curl/curl.h header and create a URL handle with curl_url(), then set a URL using curl_url_set(). This is the basic setup for using the URL API.

```c
#include <curl/curl.h>

CURLU *h = curl_url();
rc = curl_url_set(h, CURLUPART_URL, "ftp://example.com/no/where", 0);
```

--------------------------------

### Set rate limits with CURLOPT_MAX_RECV_SPEED_LARGE and CURLOPT_MAX_SEND_SPEED_LARGE

Source: https://everything.curl.dev/transfers/control/ratelimit.html

C example showing how to set maximum receive and send speeds using libcurl options. The example initializes a curl handle, sets the speed limits, performs a request to https://curl.se/, and cleans up.

```c
#include <stdio.h>
#include <curl/curl.h>

int main(void)
{
  CURL *curl;
  CURLcode res = CURLE_OK;

  curl = curl_easy_init();
  if(curl) {
    curl_off_t maxrecv = 31415;
    curl_off_t maxsend = 67954;

    curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_MAX_RECV_SPEED_LARGE, maxrecv);
    curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_MAX_SEND_SPEED_LARGE, maxsend);

    curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_URL, "https://curl.se/");

    res = curl_easy_perform(curl);

    curl_easy_cleanup(curl);
  }

  return (int)res;
}
```
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