SQLModel

https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/
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SQLModel is a library for interacting with SQL databases, combining the best of SQLAlchemy and...
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### Full file preview - complete example

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/connect/create-connected-rows/

Complete code example showing the full setup with models, engine, and hero creation.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine


class Team(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    headquarters: str


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)

    team_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="team.id")


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        team_preventers = Team(name="Preventers", headquarters="Sharp Tower")
        team_z_force = Team(name="Z-Force", headquarters="Sister Margaret's Bar")
        session.add(team_preventers)
        session.add(team_z_force)
        session.commit()

        hero_deadpond = Hero(
            name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson", team_id=team_z_force.id
        )
        hero_rusty_man = Hero(
            name="Rusty-Man",
            secret_name="Tommy Sharp",
            age=48,
            team_id=team_preventers.id,
        )
        hero_spider_boy = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
        session.add(hero_deadpond)
        session.add(hero_rusty_man)
        session.add(hero_spider_boy)
        session.commit()

        session.refresh(hero_deadpond)
        session.refresh(hero_rusty_man)
        session.refresh(hero_spider_boy)

        print("Created hero:", hero_deadpond)
        print("Created hero:", hero_rusty_man)
        print("Created hero:", hero_spider_boy)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview for .get() example

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/one/

Complete example file showing the Hero model, engine setup, database creation, hero insertion, and the select_heroes function that uses .get().

```Python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)
    hero_4 = Hero(name="Tarantula", secret_name="Natalia Roman-on", age=32)
    hero_5 = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Challa", age=35)
    hero_6 = Hero(name="Dr. Weird", secret_name="Steve Weird", age=36)
    hero_7 = Hero(name="Captain North America", secret_name="Esteban Rogelios", age=93)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)
        session.add(hero_4)
        session.add(hero_5)
        session.add(hero_6)
        session.add(hero_7)

        session.commit()


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        hero = session.get(Hero, 9001)
        print("Hero:", hero)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview: Team and Hero models with database setup

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/connect/create-connected-tables/

Complete example showing both Team and Hero models, where Hero has a foreign key to team.id. Includes SQLite engine setup and table creation function.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, SQLModel, create_engine


class Team(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    headquarters: str


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)

    team_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="team.id")


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview for offset and limit example

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/limit-and-offset/

Complete Python script that creates the database, inserts seven heroes, and selects heroes with offset and limit. It demonstrates the full setup required to run the pagination example.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)
    hero_4 = Hero(name="Tarantula", secret_name="Natalia Roman-on", age=32)
    hero_5 = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Challa", age=35)
    hero_6 = Hero(name="Dr. Weird", secret_name="Steve Weird", age=36)
    hero_7 = Hero(name="Captain North America", secret_name="Esteban Rogelios", age=93)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)
        session.add(hero_4)
        session.add(hero_5)
        session.add(hero_6)
        session.add(hero_7)

        session.commit()


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).offset(3).limit(3)
        results = session.exec(statement)
        heroes = results.all()
        print(heroes)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full example: Remove data connections setup

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/connect/remove-data-connections/

Complete code from the previous chapter, showing the model definitions, database setup, and creation of teams and heroes. It includes updating a hero's team_id to demonstrate removing a connection.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine


class Team(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    headquarters: str


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)

    team_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="team.id")


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        team_preventers = Team(name="Preventers", headquarters="Sharp Tower")
        team_z_force = Team(name="Z-Force", headquarters="Sister Margaret's Bar")
        session.add(team_preventers)
        session.add(team_z_force)
        session.commit()

        hero_deadpond = Hero(
            name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson", team_id=team_z_force.id
        )
        hero_rusty_man = Hero(
            name="Rusty-Man",
            secret_name="Tommy Sharp",
            age=48,
            team_id=team_preventers.id,
        )
        hero_spider_boy = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
        session.add(hero_deadpond)
        session.add(hero_rusty_man)
        session.add(hero_spider_boy)
        session.commit()

        session.refresh(hero_deadpond)
        session.refresh(hero_rusty_man)
        session.refresh(hero_spider_boy)

        print("Created hero:", hero_deadpond)
        print("Created hero:", hero_rusty_man)
        print("Created hero:", hero_spider_boy)

        hero_spider_boy.team_id = team_preventers.id
        session.add(hero_spider_boy)
        session.commit()
        session.refresh(hero_spider_boy)
        print("Updated hero:", hero_spider_boy)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview with all models (Python 3.10+)

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/relationship-attributes/back-populates/

Complete example showing all models (Weapon, Power, Team, Hero) with back_populates relationships, plus database setup and main function.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Relationship, SQLModel, create_engine


class Weapon(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)

    hero: "Hero" = Relationship(back_populates="weapon")


class Power(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)

    hero_id: int = Field(foreign_key="hero.id")
    hero: "Hero" = Relationship(back_populates="powers")


class Team(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    headquarters: str

    heroes: list["Hero"] = Relationship(back_populates="team")


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)

    team_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="team.id")
    team: Team | None = Relationship(back_populates="heroes")

    weapon_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="weapon.id")
    weapon: Weapon | None = Relationship(back_populates="hero")

    powers: list[Power] = Relationship(back_populates="hero")


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview with Session creation

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/insert/

Complete example showing the Hero model, engine setup, and a function that creates a session, adds heroes, commits, and closes the session.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = None


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)

    session = Session(engine)

    session.add(hero_1)
    session.add(hero_2)
    session.add(hero_3)

    session.commit()

    session.close()


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview for SET NULL example (Python 3.10+)

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/relationship-attributes/cascade-delete-relationships/

Complete example file showing the Team and Hero models with ondelete='SET NULL', database setup, and functions to create heroes, delete a team, and select deleted heroes. The main function runs the workflow.

```Python
from sqlmodel import Field, Relationship, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Team(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    headquarters: str

    heroes: list["Hero"] = Relationship(back_populates="team")


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)

    team_id: int | None = Field(
        default=None, foreign_key="team.id", ondelete="SET NULL"
    )
    team: Team | None = Relationship(back_populates="heroes")


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        team_preventers = Team(name="Preventers", headquarters="Sharp Tower")
        team_z_force = Team(name="Z-Force", headquarters="Sister Margaret's Bar")

        hero_deadpond = Hero(
            name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson", team=team_z_force
        )
        hero_rusty_man = Hero(
            name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48, team=team_preventers
        )
        hero_spider_boy = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
        session.add(hero_deadpond)
        session.add(hero_rusty_man)
        session.add(hero_spider_boy)
        session.commit()

        session.refresh(hero_deadpond)
        session.refresh(hero_rusty_man)
        session.refresh(hero_spider_boy)

        print("Created hero:", hero_deadpond)
        print("Created hero:", hero_rusty_man)
        print("Created hero:", hero_spider_boy)

        hero_spider_boy.team = team_preventers
        session.add(hero_spider_boy)
        session.commit()
        session.refresh(hero_spider_boy)
        print("Updated hero:", hero_spider_boy)

        hero_black_lion = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Challa", age=35)
        hero_sure_e = Hero(name="Princess Sure-E", secret_name="Sure-E")
        team_wakaland = Team(
            name="Wakaland",
            headquarters="Wakaland Capital City",
            heroes=[hero_black_lion, hero_sure_e],
        )
        session.add(team_wakaland)
        session.commit()
        session.refresh(team_wakaland)
        print("Team Wakaland:", team_wakaland)


def delete_team():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Team).where(Team.name == "Wakaland")
        team = session.exec(statement).one()
        session.delete(team)
        session.commit()
        print("Deleted team:", team)


def select_deleted_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Black Lion")
        result = session.exec(statement)
        hero = result.first()
        print("Black Lion has no team:", hero)

        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Princess Sure-E")
        result = session.exec(statement)
        hero = result.first()
        print("Princess Sure-E has no team:", hero)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    delete_team()
    select_deleted_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview for delete tutorial

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/delete/

Complete example file for the delete tutorial, including model definition, database setup, create_heroes, update_heroes, delete_heroes, and main function. Demonstrates the full workflow.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)
    hero_4 = Hero(name="Tarantula", secret_name="Natalia Roman-on", age=32)
    hero_5 = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Chaff", age=35)
    hero_6 = Hero(name="Dr. Weird", secret_name="Steve Weird", age=36)
    hero_7 = Hero(name="Captain North America", secret_name="Esteban Rogelios", age=93)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)
        session.add(hero_4)
        session.add(hero_5)
        session.add(hero_6)
        session.add(hero_7)

        session.commit()


def update_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Spider-Boy")
        results = session.exec(statement)
        hero_1 = results.one()
        print("Hero 1:", hero_1)

        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Captain North America")
        results = session.exec(statement)
        hero_2 = results.one()
        print("Hero 2:", hero_2)

        hero_1.age = 16
        hero_1.name = "Spider-Youngster"
        session.add(hero_1)

        hero_2.name = "Captain North America Except Canada"
        hero_2.age = 110
        session.add(hero_2)

        session.commit()
        session.refresh(hero_1)
        session.refresh(hero_2)

        print("Updated hero 1:", hero_1)
        print("Updated hero 2:", hero_2)


def delete_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Spider-Youngster")
        results = session.exec(statement)
        hero = results.one()
        print("Hero: ", hero)

        session.delete(hero)
        session.commit()

        print("Deleted hero:", hero)

        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Spider-Youngster")
        results = session.exec(statement)
        hero = results.first()

        if hero is None:
            print("There's no hero named Spider-Youngster")


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    update_heroes()
    delete_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full File Preview with Update Logic

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/update/

Complete example file showing the full SQLModel setup, creation of heroes, and the update_heroes function that selects, updates, and refreshes the hero. This is the full file preview for the update tutorial.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)
    hero_4 = Hero(name="Tarantula", secret_name="Natalia Roman-on", age=32)
    hero_5 = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Challa", age=35)
    hero_6 = Hero(name="Dr. Weird", secret_name="Steve Weird", age=36)
    hero_7 = Hero(name="Captain North America", secret_name="Esteban Rogelios", age=93)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)
        session.add(hero_4)
        session.add(hero_5)
        session.add(hero_6)
        session.add(hero_7)

        session.commit()


def update_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Spider-Boy")
        results = session.exec(statement)
        hero = results.one()
        print("Hero:", hero)

        hero.age = 16
        session.add(hero)
        session.commit()
        session.refresh(hero)
        print("Updated hero:", hero)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    update_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview: select heroes with name != 'Deadpond'

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/where/

Complete example file that includes the full setup (Hero model, engine, create_db_and_tables, create_heroes) and the select_heroes() function using the != comparison. This is the full file preview for the not-equal example.

```Python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = None


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)

        session.commit()


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name != "Deadpond")
        results = session.exec(statement)
        for hero in results:
            print(hero)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview with update_heroes

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/many-to-many/update-remove-relationships/

Complete example file including model definitions, database setup, create_heroes, and update_heroes with relationship append and remove operations.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Relationship, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class HeroTeamLink(SQLModel, table=True):
    team_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="team.id", primary_key=True)
    hero_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="hero.id", primary_key=True)


class Team(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    headquarters: str

    heroes: list["Hero"] = Relationship(back_populates="teams", link_model=HeroTeamLink)


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)

    teams: list[Team] = Relationship(back_populates="heroes", link_model=HeroTeamLink)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        team_preventers = Team(name="Preventers", headquarters="Sharp Tower")
        team_z_force = Team(name="Z-Force", headquarters="Sister Margaret's Bar")

        hero_deadpond = Hero(
            name="Deadpond",
            secret_name="Dive Wilson",
            teams=[team_z_force, team_preventers],
        )
        hero_rusty_man = Hero(
            name="Rusty-Man",
            secret_name="Tommy Sharp",
            age=48,
            teams=[team_preventers],
        )
        hero_spider_boy = Hero(
            name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador", teams=[team_preventers]
        )
        session.add(hero_deadpond)
        session.add(hero_rusty_man)
        session.add(hero_spider_boy)
        session.commit()

        session.refresh(hero_deadpond)
        session.refresh(hero_rusty_man)
        session.refresh(hero_spider_boy)

        print("Deadpond:", hero_deadpond)
        print("Deadpond teams:", hero_deadpond.teams)
        print("Rusty-Man:", hero_rusty_man)
        print("Rusty-Man Teams:", hero_rusty_man.teams)
        print("Spider-Boy:", hero_spider_boy)
        print("Spider-Boy Teams:", hero_spider_boy.teams)


def update_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        hero_spider_boy = session.exec(
            select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Spider-Boy")
        ).one()
        team_z_force = session.exec(select(Team).where(Team.name == "Z-Force")).one()

        team_z_force.heroes.append(hero_spider_boy)
        session.add(team_z_force)
        session.commit()

        print("Updated Spider-Boy's Teams:", hero_spider_boy.teams)
        print("Z-Force heroes:", team_z_force.heroes)

        hero_spider_boy.teams.remove(team_z_force)
        session.add(team_z_force)
        session.commit()

        print("Reverted Z-Force's heroes:", team_z_force.heroes)
        print("Reverted Spider-Boy's teams:", hero_spider_boy.teams)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    update_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full SQLModel example with WHERE clause (Python 3.10+)

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/where/

Complete example that creates the database, inserts heroes, and selects a hero by name using a WHERE clause. It includes the Hero model, engine setup, and the main() function. The output shows the generated SQL and the printed hero.

```Python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = None


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)

        session.commit()


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.name == "Deadpond")
        results = session.exec(statement)
        for hero in results:
            print(hero)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

```Console Output
$ uv run python app.py

// Some boilerplate output omitted 😉

// Now the important part, the SELECT with WHERE 💡

INFO Engine SELECT hero.id, hero.name, hero.secret_name, hero.age
FROM hero
WHERE hero.name = ?
INFO Engine [no key 0.00014s] ('Deadpond',)

// Here's the only printed hero
secret_name='Dive Wilson' age=None id=1 name='Deadpond'
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview with .limit(3)

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/limit-and-offset/

Complete example file that creates the database, inserts 7 heroes, and selects the first 3 using .limit(3). Includes imports, model definition, engine setup, and main execution.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)
    hero_4 = Hero(name="Tarantula", secret_name="Natalia Roman-on", age=32)
    hero_5 = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Challa", age=35)
    hero_6 = Hero(name="Dr. Weird", secret_name="Steve Weird", age=36)
    hero_7 = Hero(name="Captain North America", secret_name="Esteban Rogelios", age=93)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)
        session.add(hero_4)
        session.add(hero_5)
        session.add(hero_6)
        session.add(hero_7)

        session.commit()


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).limit(3)
        results = session.exec(statement)
        heroes = results.all()
        print(heroes)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

```

--------------------------------

### Full Example: Link Table, Team, Hero, and Database Setup - Python 3.10+

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/many-to-many/create-models-with-link/

Complete example showing the HeroTeamLink link table, the Team and Hero models with many-to-many relationships using link_model, and functions to create the database and insert sample heroes with their teams. Demonstrates using composite primary keys in the link table.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Relationship, Session, SQLModel, create_engine


class HeroTeamLink(SQLModel, table=True):
    team_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="team.id", primary_key=True)
    hero_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="hero.id", primary_key=True)


class Team(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    headquarters: str

    heroes: list["Hero"] = Relationship(back_populates="teams", link_model=HeroTeamLink)


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)

    teams: list[Team] = Relationship(back_populates="heroes", link_model=HeroTeamLink)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        team_preventers = Team(name="Preventers", headquarters="Sharp Tower")
        team_z_force = Team(name="Z-Force", headquarters="Sister Margaret's Bar")

        hero_deadpond = Hero(
            name="Deadpond",
            secret_name="Dive Wilson",
            teams=[team_z_force, team_preventers],
        )
        hero_rusty_man = Hero(
            name="Rusty-Man",
            secret_name="Tommy Sharp",
            age=48,
            teams=[team_preventers],
        )
        hero_spider_boy = Hero(
            name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador", teams=[team_preventers]
        )
        session.add(hero_deadpond)
        session.add(hero_rusty_man)
        session.add(hero_spider_boy)
        session.commit()

        session.refresh(hero_deadpond)
        session.refresh(hero_rusty_man)
        session.refresh(hero_spider_boy)

        print("Deadpond:", hero_deadpond)
        print("Deadpond teams:", hero_deadpond.teams)
        print("Rusty-Man:", hero_rusty_man)
        print("Rusty-Man Teams:", hero_rusty_man.teams)
        print("Spider-Boy:", hero_spider_boy)
        print("Spider-Boy Teams:", hero_spider_boy.teams)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview for join example

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/connect/read-connected-data/

Complete Python script showing model definitions, database setup, data creation, and the select_heroes() function that joins Hero and Team tables.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Team(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    headquarters: str


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)

    team_id: int | None = Field(default=None, foreign_key="team.id")


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        team_preventers = Team(name="Preventers", headquarters="Sharp Tower")
        team_z_force = Team(name="Z-Force", headquarters="Sister Margaret's Bar")
        session.add(team_preventers)
        session.add(team_z_force)
        session.commit()

        hero_deadpond = Hero(
            name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson", team_id=team_z_force.id
        )
        hero_rusty_man = Hero(
            name="Rusty-Man",
            secret_name="Tommy Sharp",
            age=48,
            team_id=team_preventers.id,
        )
        hero_spider_boy = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
        session.add(hero_deadpond)
        session.add(hero_rusty_man)
        session.add(hero_spider_boy)
        session.commit()

        session.refresh(hero_deadpond)
        session.refresh(hero_rusty_man)
        session.refresh(hero_spider_boy)

        print("Created hero:", hero_deadpond)
        print("Created hero:", hero_rusty_man)
        print("Created hero:", hero_spider_boy)


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero, Team).join(Team)
        results = session.exec(statement)
        for hero, team in results:
            print("Hero:", hero, "Team:", team)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview with LIMIT (Python 3.10+)

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/limit-and-offset/

Complete SQLModel application showing the Hero model, database setup, create_heroes(), and select_heroes() using .limit(3) to fetch only the first three heroes. This is the full example for the LIMIT tutorial.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)
    hero_4 = Hero(name="Tarantula", secret_name="Natalia Roman-on", age=32)
    hero_5 = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Challa", age=35)
    hero_6 = Hero(name="Dr. Weird", secret_name="Steve Weird", age=36)
    hero_7 = Hero(name="Captain North America", secret_name="Esteban Rogelios", age=93)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)
        session.add(hero_4)
        session.add(hero_5)
        session.add(hero_6)
        session.add(hero_7)

        session.commit()


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).limit(3)
        results = session.exec(statement)
        heroes = results.all()
        print(heroes)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview for offset and limit example

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/limit-and-offset/

Complete Python script that sets up the database, creates heroes, and selects the next batch using offset(6).limit(3). This is the full example file.

```python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)
    hero_4 = Hero(name="Tarantula", secret_name="Natalia Roman-on", age=32)
    hero_5 = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Challa", age=35)
    hero_6 = Hero(name="Dr. Weird", secret_name="Steve Weird", age=36)
    hero_7 = Hero(name="Captain North America", secret_name="Esteban Rogelios", age=93)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)
        session.add(hero_4)
        session.add(hero_5)
        session.add(hero_6)
        session.add(hero_7)

        session.commit()


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).offset(6).limit(3)
        results = session.exec(statement)
        heroes = results.all()
        print(heroes)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Example GET request URL for hero ID 2

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/fastapi/read-one/

Shows the URL path to request a hero with ID 2: /heroes/2.

```text
/heroes/2
```

--------------------------------

### Simple SQL query to get all heroes

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/db-to-code/

A basic SQL query to retrieve all data from the hero table. This is the starting point for the discussion on ORMs.

```sql
SELECT *
FROM hero;
```

--------------------------------

### Full file preview: use .first() to get first row (Python 3.10+)

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/one/

Complete example file that creates the database, inserts hero records, and selects the first hero with age <= 35 using `results.first()`. This is the full version of the `.first()` example.

```Python
from sqlmodel import Field, Session, SQLModel, create_engine, select


class Hero(SQLModel, table=True):
    id: int | None = Field(default=None, primary_key=True)
    name: str = Field(index=True)
    secret_name: str
    age: int | None = Field(default=None, index=True)


sqlite_file_name = "database.db"
sqlite_url = f"sqlite:///{sqlite_file_name}"

engine = create_engine(sqlite_url, echo=True)


def create_db_and_tables():
    SQLModel.metadata.create_all(engine)


def create_heroes():
    hero_1 = Hero(name="Deadpond", secret_name="Dive Wilson")
    hero_2 = Hero(name="Spider-Boy", secret_name="Pedro Parqueador")
    hero_3 = Hero(name="Rusty-Man", secret_name="Tommy Sharp", age=48)
    hero_4 = Hero(name="Tarantula", secret_name="Natalia Roman-on", age=32)
    hero_5 = Hero(name="Black Lion", secret_name="Trevor Challa", age=35)
    hero_6 = Hero(name="Dr. Weird", secret_name="Steve Weird", age=36)
    hero_7 = Hero(name="Captain North America", secret_name="Esteban Rogelios", age=93)

    with Session(engine) as session:
        session.add(hero_1)
        session.add(hero_2)
        session.add(hero_3)
        session.add(hero_4)
        session.add(hero_5)
        session.add(hero_6)
        session.add(hero_7)

        session.commit()


def select_heroes():
    with Session(engine) as session:
        statement = select(Hero).where(Hero.age <= 35)
        results = session.exec(statement)
        hero = results.first()
        print("Hero:", hero)


def main():
    create_db_and_tables()
    create_heroes()
    select_heroes()


if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()
```

--------------------------------

### Output of running the example

Source: https://sqlmodel.tiangolo.com/tutorial/connect/read-connected-data/

Shows the expected console output when running the full example, including SQL logs and the printed hero and team data. Demonstrates the join and filter behavior.

```text
$ uv run python app.py

// Select the hero and the team data
INFO Engine SELECT hero.id, hero.name, hero.secret_name, hero.age, hero.team_id, team.id AS id_1, team.name AS name_1, team.headquarters
// Join the hero with the team table
FROM hero JOIN team ON team.id = hero.team_id
// Filter with WHERE to get only Preventers
WHERE team.name = ?
INFO Engine [no key 0.00018s] ('Preventers',)

// Print the hero and the team
Preventer Hero: id=2 secret_name='Tommy Sharp' team_id=1 name='Rusty-Man' age=48 Team: headquarters='Sharp Tower' id=1 name='Preventers'

```
Tokens:
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